Everything below concerns mass spectrometry. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-09-17. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
Clinical reports describe use in ischaemic stroke, transient ischaemic attack, optic nerve conditions, and cognitive complaints, but most of these studies are small and were conducted in a single region. Systematic reviews have generally described the evidence base as limited in size and variable in methodological quality. Randomised controlled data suitable for international regulatory assessment are scarce. As a result, major treatment guidelines outside Russia do not include the peptide, and interest in it remains largely research-driven rather than routine clinical.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It is described in the literature as an analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short N-terminal portion of adrenocorticotropic hormone that retains some neurotropic activity without the full hormonal effects of the parent peptide. The molecule carries a methionine residue at the N-terminus and two proline residues near the C-terminus, features that shape both its interactions with receptor systems and its chemical stability. The free peptide corresponds to the formula C37H51N9O10S and a molecular mass near 813.9 Da.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized solid from research suppliers |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also dissolves in aqueous buffers; solutions are used fresh |
| Typical storage temperature | -20 °C for lyophilized powder | Short-term transport at 2-8 °C is common |
| Common analytical method | Reverse-phase HPLC | Paired with mass spectrometry for identity confirmation |
| Common synonyms | ACTH(4-10) analogue; MEHFPGP | N-terminal methionine retained in the chain |
Once dissolved, the peptide is considerably less stable than the solid. Aqueous solutions are usually prepared at neutral to slightly acidic pH, filtered, and divided into single-use aliquots before freezing. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles are a common cause of avoidable loss and are best prevented by never refreezing a thawed aliquot. Adsorption to plastic and glass surfaces can lower the measured concentration of dilute solutions, particularly below roughly 0.1 mg/mL. Buffer choice, salt content, and container material all influence how much peptide remains detectable after storage.
Identity and purity are established with standard peptide methods. Reversed-phase HPLC with ultraviolet detection near 214 nm resolves the parent peak from deletion and truncation byproducts, and reports typically quote a main-peak percentage. Mass spectrometry by electrospray or MALDI-TOF confirms the expected molecular mass, while amino acid analysis or peptide mapping can verify composition when the sequence itself is in question. A certificate of analysis that pairs a chromatogram with a mass spectrum is more informative than a purity figure alone. Counter-ion content and residual solvents are separate specifications and are frequently omitted.
Semax is normally supplied as a lyophilized powder, and that form is the most stable. Suppliers commonly recommend storage at -20 °C in a desiccated container protected from light, with short-term handling at room temperature limited to weighing and transfer. Powder that has absorbed moisture degrades faster, so vials should be warmed to ambient temperature before opening to prevent condensation on the contents. Hygroscopic behavior is typical of short hydrophilic peptides, and humidity control matters more than temperature alone for long-term retention.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the type of RNA that carries information from DNA to the ribosome, the sites of protein synthesis (translation) in the cell cytoplasm. The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the amino acid sequence in the protein that is produced. However, many RNAs do not code for protein (about 97% of the transcriptional output is non-protein-coding in eukaryotes). These so-called non-coding RNAs ("ncRNA") can be encoded by their own genes (RNA genes), but can also derive from mRNA introns. The most prominent examples of non-coding RNAs are transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation. There are also non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation, RNA processing and other roles. Certain RNAs are able to catalyse chemical reactions such as cutting and ligating other RNA molecules, and the catalysis of peptide bond formation in the ribosome; these are known as ribozymes. According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes small RNA and long RNA. Usually, small RNAs are shorter than 200 nt in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200 nt long. Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) and mRNA. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 5S rRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), microRNA (miRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), small nucleolar RNA (snoRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA) and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA).
==== Henry Clay ==== The facility at Henry Clay, also in New Orleans, was constructed in 2012 with 127,000 square feet (5,100,000 cubic feet) of cold storage warehouse with a total storage capacity of 38,000,000 pounds of product. This plant has riverfront bulk break access as well as direct access to the Port of New Orleans container port. This facility has two vessel berths and 20 dock doors and is located within one mile of the container terminal. This facility has access to all major U.S. rail carriers. It maintains USDA export certification and approval from the Russian confederation for poultry exports. It is especially designed to blast freeze meat and poultry at 0 degrees Fahrenheit within 24 hours with a total capacity of 1,240,000 lbs. a day.
Glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, often as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant. Ichthyosis and xerosis have been relieved by the topical use of glycerin. It is found in allergen immunotherapies, cough syrups, elixirs, expectorants, toothpastes, mouthwashes, skin care products, shaving cream, hair care products, soaps, and water-based personal lubricants. It is used to keep tablets and other solid dosage forms from falling apart. For human consumption, glycerol is classified by the FDA among the sugar alcohols as a caloric macronutrient. Glycerol is also used in blood banking to preserve red blood cells prior to freezing. Taken rectally, glycerol functions as a laxative by irritating the anal mucosa and inducing a hyperosmotic effect, expanding the colon by drawing water into it to induce peristalsis resulting in evacuation. It may be administered undiluted as a suppository, or as a small-volume (2–10 ml) enema. Alternatively, it may be administered in a dilute solution, such as 5%, as a high-volume enema. Taken orally (often mixed with fruit juice to reduce its sweet taste), glycerol can cause a rapid, temporary decrease in the internal pressure of the eye. This can be useful for the initial emergency treatment of severely elevated eye pressure. In 2017, researchers showed that the probiotic Limosilactobacillus reuteri bacteria can be supplemented with glycerol to enhance its production of antimicrobial substances in the human gut.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Personal life == In 1957, Marks married sculptor and artist Averil Sherrard and had two children. Marks was known to have been an atheist and a humanist who was opposed to religion. Along with his wife, he campaigned for various causes including saving a park in Guildford, Surrey, where they lived, from developers. He was a founding member of the charity HealthSense. His brother John Marks was also a doctor, and the chair of the British Medical Association. Marks died on 6 November 2023, at the age of 93.
=== Human Chorionic Gonadotropin === Like relaxin, hCG may be measured, although the effects on the neonate are not well understood. It is posited that it may act as an LH paralogue to affect the development of neonatal gonads, although further research is required.
In America, in 2009, further advanced counters were designed that included the ability to dispense hands-free – a feature that many operators had desired. This allowed pharmacies to automate their most commonly dispensed medications via calibrated cassettes. Thirty of a pharmacy's common medications would now be dispensed automatically. Another new model doubled that throughput via an enclosed robotic mechanism. Robotics had been employed in pharmacies since the mid-1990s, but later machines dispense and label filled patient vials in a comparatively tiny space (about nine square feet of floor space). These newer technologies allowed pharmacy staff to confidently dispense hundreds of prescriptions per day and still be able to manage the many functions of a busy community pharmacy. This would increase the number of patients that are able to be served each day.
Then split the RNA into triplets (groups of three bases). Note that there are 3 translation "windows", or reading frames, depending on where you start reading the code. Finally, use the table at Genetic code to translate the above into a structural formula as used in chemistry. This will give the primary structure of the protein. However, proteins tend to fold, depending in part on hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments along the chain. Secondary structure can often still be guessed, but the proper tertiary structure is often very hard to determine. In order to determine the precise 3D structure and atomic interactions, Structural biology and several other Biophysics methods are used. Whereas other aspects such as the 3D structure, called tertiary structure, of protein can only be predicted using sophisticated algorithms, the amino acid sequence, called primary structure, can be determined solely from the nucleic acid sequence with the aid of a translation table. This approach may not give the correct amino acid composition of the protein, in particular if unconventional amino acids such as selenocysteine are incorporated into the protein, which is coded for by a conventional stop codon in combination with a downstream hairpin (SElenoCysteine Insertion Sequence, or SECIS). There are many computer programs capable of translating a DNA/RNA sequence into a protein sequence. Normally this is performed using the Standard Genetic Code, however, few programs can handle all the "special" cases, such as the use of the alternative initiation codons which are biologically significant.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It consists mainly of animal experiments and small clinical reports, with much of the clinical material published in Russian-language journals. Large independent trials are scarce. Separating reliable effects from chance findings is consequently difficult.
A fraction of an intranasal dose is thought to reach the central nervous system, and this route is favoured partly for that reason. The proportion is not well characterized. Direct measurement in humans remains difficult with current methods.
Raised BDNF and NGF expression has been reported across several animal studies, which makes the signal fairly consistent. Whether the same change occurs in humans at usable doses is not established. It is best treated as a working hypothesis rather than a confirmed clinical mechanism.
It is described as a synthetic analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Its sequence differs from that fragment and includes two proline residues, which influence stability and behaviour in solution.