If you have been reading about 鼻内给药 and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-08-01. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was derived from the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone that lacks the hormonal activity associated with the full-length peptide. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow developed the compound during the 1980s. It has been registered as a pharmaceutical product in Russia and several neighbouring countries, where it is supplied as a nasal solution, and it is also sold internationally as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Circulation time for the peptide is short because peptidases cleave it readily. The Pro-Gly-Pro tail is thought to slow breakdown compared with the bare ACTH fragment, but the gain appears modest. Absorption after intranasal dosing is limited, and only a fraction of a dose is expected to reach the central nervous system. Laboratory concentrations therefore sit well above levels achieved systemically, a gap that complicates translation from bench findings to clinical claims.
The mechanisms attributed to semax are inferred from animal and cell studies rather than traced to one confirmed target. The most frequently cited pathway involves increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal and cortical tissue. Some work points to engagement of melanocortin receptors, particularly MC4, which the parent ACTH fragment can activate. Effects on dopaminergic and serotonergic signalling have also been reported. No single account explains all observed results, and the relative weight of each pathway remains unsettled.
Published studies examine a fairly narrow set of endpoints. Rodent experiments commonly measure maze learning, infarct volume after induced ischemia, and tissue levels of neurotrophic factors. Clinical reports from Russian centres describe attention, memory and recovery scores in patients after stroke or transient ischemic attack. Most of those human studies are small and few have been repeated by independent groups. Outcome measures differ between studies, which limits direct comparison.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Calculated for the free peptide |
| Molar mass | 813.9 g/mol | Anhydrous free base |
| Peptide class | Synthetic heptapeptide | ACTH(4-10) analogue |
| Parent fragment | ACTH(4-10) | Adrenocorticotropic hormone segment |
| Developmental origin | Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow | Work began in the 1980s |
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
各国监管态度分化明显。俄罗斯按处方药管理，部分东欧国家留有使用记录；欧盟与美国未批准其作为药物上市，市面流通品通常标注为研究用化学品。身份差异意味着标示含量、纯度与无菌性缺少统一核查。体育领域还牵涉反兴奋剂名录，跨境携带则受目的地药品法规约束。
Semax 是人工设计的七肽，序列为 Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro，骨架取自促肾上腺皮质激素片段 ACTH(4-10)。它于二十世纪八十年代在苏联的分子遗传学研究机构内合成。设计目标是保留该片段与注意力和记忆相关的活性，同时剔除促皮质激素释放等内分泌作用。此后俄罗斯将其登记为药品并进入临床使用。
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
多数实验室与市售的 Semax 以冻干粉形式提供。冻干粉通常建议保存在 -20 °C 或更低温度下，同时避免光照与反复升温。短期运输有时采用冷藏条件，但长期保存仍以冷冻为主。分包操作应尽量减少开盖次数，以降低吸湿和微生物污染的风险。开封后若未一次用完，建议在干燥环境中密封并尽快放回低温储存。
== Physiological potential == In a pre-clinical meta-analysis of gingerol compounds anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antioxidant, neuroprotective and gastroprotective properties were reported, which include studies in-vitro and in-vivo. A few in-vivo studies have proposed that gingerols facilitate healthy glucose regulation for diabetics. Many studies have been around the effects of gingerols on a wide range of cancers including leukemia, prostate, breast, skin, ovarian, lung, pancreatic and colorectal. There has not been much clinical testing to observe gingerols physiological impacts in humans. While many of the chemical mechanisms associated with the effects of gingerols on cells have been thoroughly studied, few have been in a clinical setting. This is due to the high variability in natural phytochemicals and the lack of efficacy in research. Most herbal medicine, which include gingerols, are under the restrictions of the Food and Drug Administration in the United States and experimental methods have not held up to scrutiny which has decreased the value in phytochemical research. Herbal medicine is untested for quality assurance, potency and effectiveness in clinical settings due to a lack of funding in eastern medical research. Most research on [6]-Gingerol has been on either mouse subjects (in-vivo) or on cultured human tissue (in-vitro) and may be used in the future to discuss possible applications for multi-target disease control.
=== International reactions === The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments worldwide. Nations offered pro-American support and solidarity. Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries, as well as Libya and Afghanistan, condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception, with an immediate official statement that "the American cowboys are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity." The government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks, but privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause. Although Palestinian Authority (PA) president Yasser Arafat also condemned the attacks, there were reports of celebrations of disputed size in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. Arafat ordered his security services to break up the celebrations and tried to obstruct news organizations from showing them. The PA claimed that such celebrations do not represent Palestinian sentiment overall. Footage by CNN and other news outlets were suggested by a report originating at a Brazilian university to be from 1991; this was later proven to be a false accusation. As in the United States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other countries between Muslims and non-Muslims. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368 condemned the attacks and expressed readiness to take all necessary steps to respond and combat terrorism in accordance with their Charter. Numerous countries introduced anti-terrorism legislation and froze bank accounts they suspected of al-Qaeda ties.
== Publications == Eltenton, G. C. (1938). "Direct Evidence for the N2H+ Ion in the Discharge Reaction between N2 and H2". Nature. 141 (3578): 975–976. Bibcode:1938Natur.141..975E. doi:10.1038/141975b0. S2CID 4041283. Eltenton, G. C. (1942). "The Detection of Free Radicals by Means of a Mass Spectrometer". Journal of Chemical Physics. 10 (6): 403. Bibcode:1942JChPh..10..403E. doi:10.1063/1.1723738. Eltenton, G. C. (1947). "The Study of Reaction Intermediates by Means of a Mass Spectrometer Part I. Apparatus and Method". Journal of Chemical Physics. 15 (7): 455–481. Bibcode:1947JChPh..15..455E. doi:10.1063/1.1746565. Eltenton, G. C. (1954). "Some instruments for quality control in petroleum refineries". Journal of Applied Chemistry. 4 (5): 245–256. doi:10.1002/jctb.5010040503.
Concurrently to the oxygen barrier property, the permeability of water vapor through a food packaging system should be minimized to effectively prevent physical and chemical changes connected to an excessive moisture content. The moisture barrier properties of a material can be assessed by measuring the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), which can be defined as the amount of water vapor per unit of area and unit of time passing through the packaging film. The WVTR measurements, like the OTR, adhere to the standards for standardized tests, as outlined in the ASTM E96 (standard methods for water vapor transmission of materials). An impermeable test dish (such as a stainless steel cup) and a test chamber, where temperature and relative humidity (RH) can be adjusted in accordance with the standard specification, make up the basic instrumentation used in such tests.
The Constituent Assembly of India chose the official language of India's federal government in September 1949 after three years of debate between two opposing camps. Hindi language protagonists wanted Hindi in the Devanagari script to be the sole "national language" of India whereas delegates from South India preferred English to have a place in the Constitution. The compromise reached declared (i) Hindi to be the "official language" of India's federal government; (ii) English to be an associate official language for 15 years during which Hindi's formal lexicon would be developed; and (iii) the international form of Hindu–Arabic numerals to be the official numerals. The compromise resolution became articles 343–351 of India's constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950. In 1965, after bitter opposition from South India to Hindi becoming the sole official language, a compromise was reached whereby English would continue to be an "associate official language" indefinitely. The Eighth Schedule of India's Constitution also recognises 22 languages, including Hindi but not English, which the government must develop. These are sometimes called "scheduled languages". This list includes major regional languages, but also others—such as Sanskrit, which no longer has first language speakers in India, and Urdu, which is not region-specific—because of their value to India's cultural heritage. In 1950, there were 14 scheduled languages: Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The giant puffball, Calvatia gigantea, reaches 1 foot (0.30 m) or more in diameter, and is difficult to mistake for any other fungus. It has been estimated that, when mature, a large specimen of this fungus will produce around 7 × 1012 spores, which is more than any other known organism. Some puffball mushrooms may also be stalked, such as those found in the genus Tulostoma. There are also a number of false puffballs that look similar to the true ones.
Severe vitamin B3 deficiency in the diet causes the disease pellagra, characterized by diarrhea, sun-sensitive dermatitis involving hyperpigmentation and thickening of the skin (see image), inflammation of the mouth and tongue, delirium, dementia, and if left untreated, death. Common psychiatric symptoms include irritability, poor concentration, anxiety, fatigue, loss of memory, restlessness, apathy, and depression. The biochemical mechanisms for the observed deficiency-caused neurodegeneration are not well understood, but may rest on: A) the requirement for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) to suppress the creation of neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites; B) inhibition of mitochondrial ATP generation resulting in cell damage; C) activation of the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) pathway, as PARP is a nuclear enzyme involved in DNA repair, but in the absence of NAD+ can lead to cell death; D) reduced synthesis of neuro-protective brain-derived neurotrophic factor or its receptor tropomyosin receptor kinase B; or, E) changes to genome expression directly due to the niacin deficiency. Niacin deficiency is rarely seen in developed countries, and it is more typically associated with poverty, malnutrition or malnutrition secondary to chronic alcoholism. It also tends to occur in areas where people eat maize (corn) as a staple food, as maize is low in digestible niacin. A cooking technique called nixtamalization, that is, pretreating with alkali ingredients, increases the bioavailability of niacin during maize meal or flour production.
Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory. Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50–20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm. The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved. The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved. However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb. This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel. The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size. Agarose gels are cast in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution.
Dubnium, having an atomic number of 105, is a superheavy element; like all elements with such high atomic numbers, it is very unstable. The longest-lasting known isotope of dubnium, 268Db, has a half-life of around a day. No stable isotopes have been seen, and a 2012 calculation by JINR suggested that the half-lives of all dubnium isotopes would not significantly exceed a day. Dubnium can only be obtained by artificial production. The short half-life of dubnium limits experimentation. This is exacerbated by the fact that the most stable isotopes are the hardest to synthesize. Elements with a lower atomic number have stable isotopes with a lower neutron–proton ratio than those with higher atomic number, meaning that the target and beam nuclei that could be employed to create the superheavy element have fewer neutrons than needed to form these most stable isotopes. (Different techniques based on rapid neutron capture and transfer reactions are being considered as of the 2010s, but those based on the collision of a large and small nucleus still dominate research in the area.) Only a few atoms of 268Db can be produced in each experiment, and thus the measured lifetimes vary significantly during the process. As of 2022, following additional experiments performed at the JINR's Superheavy Element Factory (which started operations in 2019), the half-life of 268Db is measured to be 16+6−4 hours. The second most stable isotope, 270Db, has been produced in even smaller quantities: three atoms in total, with lifetimes of 33.4 h, 1.3 h, and 1.6 h.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== RSKSOP-175 analysis of petroleum gases == A widely used methods for headspace analysis is described by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) was developed as a "high quality, defendable, and documented way to measure" methane, ethane, and ethene, RSKSOP-175 is a standard operating procedure (SOP) and an unofficial method employed by the USEPA to detect and quantify dissolved gases in water. This method has been used to quantify dissolved hydrogen, methane, ethylene, ethane, propane, butane, acetylene, nitrogen, nitrous oxide, and oxygen. The method uses headspace gas injected into a gas chromatographic column (GC) to determine the original concentration in a water sample.
In October 2022, 777 Partners bought a minority stake in Melbourne Victory FC of the Australian A-League Men for AU$8.7 million. The following January, the club's shareholders voted in favor of allowing 777 Partners to secure up to 70% over the next five years, in exchange for AU$30 million in investment. The voluntary administration of 777 Partners' Australian airline Bonza in 2024 meant that Melbourne Victory were sponsored by AIA Group for the playoffs that year, before a long-term deal with Turkish Airlines could begin in 2025.
==== Comparisons ==== Its healing efficacy against ulceration is significantly greater than that of other zinc complexes, free L-carnosine, and zinc D-carnosine (which is not sold as a supplement to consumers). The pharmacological activity of zinc L-carnosine seems attributable mainly to zinc ion, presumably transported effectively into the ulcer by means of L-carnosine together with the action of L-carnosine itself. In contrast, a simple mixture of L-carnosine and zinc had a lesser effect, presumably due to rapid diffusion of L-carnosine and zinc ion in the entire stomach. Per preclinical data, zinc L-carnosine is superior to zinc sulfide for mucositis.
== Nomenclature == This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on the aldehyde or oxo group of donor with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate:NAD+ oxidoreductase (phosphorylating). Other names in common use include triosephosphate dehydrogenase, dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde phosphate, phosphoglyceraldehyde dehydrogenase, 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde dehydrogenase, NAD+-dependent glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (NAD+), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (NAD+), NADH-glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, and glyceraldehyde-3-P-dehydrogenase.
But I realised that wasn't the truth." Upon Ceaușescu's return from Iran on the evening of 20 December, the situation became even more tense, and he gave a televised speech from the TV studio inside the Central Committee Building (CC Building) in which he spoke about the events at Timișoara in terms of an "interference of foreign forces in Romania's internal affairs" and an "external aggression on Romania's sovereignty." The country, which had no information about the Timișoara events from the national media, heard about the Timișoara revolt from Western radio stations like Voice of America and Radio Free Europe, and by word of mouth. A mass meeting was staged for the next day, 21 December, which, according to the official media, was presented as a "spontaneous movement of support for Ceaușescu," emulating the 1968 meeting in which Ceaușescu had spoken against the invasion of Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact forces.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.
It is registered for clinical use in Russia and a few other countries, typically as a nasal drop formulation. It does not hold approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency. Outside those markets it is generally handled as a research chemical.
The compound was developed in Moscow and the earliest studies were conducted there, so the primary literature is largely in Russian-language journals. Translation and indexing have been incomplete, which limits access for outside researchers. Independent groups have since published some work, but the total volume remains modest.
It consists mainly of animal experiments and small clinical reports, with much of the clinical material published in Russian-language journals. Large independent trials are scarce. Separating reliable effects from chance findings is consequently difficult.